WWW.WAS.ORG • WORLD AQUACULTURE • MARCH 2025 65 (CONTINUED ON PAGE 66) and reproduction. Some bottom-dwelling organisms still show high PAH metabolites in their bodies due to decades of oil pollution. The toxic effects of oil depend on the concentration of the light aromatic components in the oil and the duration of exposure to these components. The presence of oil in spawning and nursery areas can also have severe consequences for fish larvae and eggs. Oil can coat the surfaces of eggs, reducing oxygen exchange and hindering the development of embryos. Additionally, toxic substances in oil can impair the growth and survival of fish larvae (Grosell and Pasparakis 2021; Moller et al., 1989). Indirect Effects on the Food Chain Oil pollution can negatively impact the amount and distribution of plankton and other small organisms that function as key food sources for numerous fish species. As the light penetration is limited by dissolved oil droplets and dense film on the water surface, the amount of light available for photosynthesis will be minimized leading to lower primary production. This food chain disruption (disturbance of prey species) can result in cascading impacts on higher trophic levels, ultimately leading to decreases in fish populations. Oil pollutants also have the potential to accumulate in fish tissues through bioaccumulation. As predatory fish consume contaminated prey, the concentration of pollutants increases along the food web, posing risks to both fish and human consumers. This bioaccumulation can lead to the phenomenon called tainting, i.e., detection of an odour or flavour that is foreign to a food product as a petroleum taste or smell (Little et al. 2021). Habitat Degradation Oil spills often contaminate and destroy coastal habitats such as mangroves, sea grass beds, coral reefs and estuaries. These areas serve as critical spawning grounds and nurseries for many fish species. The loss of these habitats can have long-lasting impacts on fish populations. Oil pollution can adversely affect coral reefs and other essential habitat (Lee et al. 2015). Economic Impacts If any event of contamination of fishing grounds or near-shore habitats occurs, governments impose restrictions as a preventive measure to protect public health. Consumption bans can lead to huge economic losses and long-lasting economic repercussions for local communities. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 resulted in an estimated $1.9 billion loss in revenue in the Gulf of Mexico due to fishing closures and decline in seafood demand. Physical oil contamination can foul boats, fishing gear, and mariculture facilities, and it can then be transferred to the catch or production stocks, leading to further economic losses (Little et al. 2021). Effects of Oil Pollution on Aquaculture Aquaculture facilities, including fish farms and hatcheries, are often vulnerable to oil pollution. Contaminated water in aquaculture facilities can compromise the health of farmed fish, leading to diseases, reduced growth rates, and increased mortality. Bioaccumulation of toxic compounds renders the aquaculture produce to be unfit for human consumption. Contaminated products can pose huge health risks to consumers, leading to market rejection and business disruptions. Oil pollution can reduce the oxygen levels in water, negatively impacting the aerobic respiration of aquatic organisms, including farmed fish (Lee et al. 2015). Disruption of water quality and decreased oxygen availability can lead to stress, reduced growth, and increased susceptibility to diseases in aquaculture species. Certain oil pollutants can bind to sediments, and in aquaculture settings, these sediments can accumulate in ponds or cages. This sediment-bound oil will be inaccessible in specific intensive systems that can persist and continue to release pollutants, posing ongoing threats to farmed fish and other aquatic organisms. Oil pollution incidents can result in significant economic losses for the aquaculture industry. These can even disrupt aquaculture operations by causing severe damage to infrastructure such as nets, cages, feeding equipment etc. The contamination of aquaculture products can lead to market restrictions, trade bans, and decreased consumer confidence, affecting the livelihoods of those involved in the industry (Cederwall et al. 2020; Little et al. 2021). Mitigation Strategies Prevention and preparedness are always superior strategies to avoid unfortunate incidents. Enhanced safety regulations for oil exploration, extraction, and transportation can help prevent spills and minimize the risk of oil pollution. Stringent measures, such as the use of advanced technologies and regular equipment inspections, can prevent major accidents as can regulations. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the lead federal response agency for oil spills. The Facility Response Plan (FRP) rules and Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) regulations are part of EPA’s oil spill prevention program. The U.S. Coast Guard is the lead response agency for spills in coastal waters and deepwater ports. The most important regulations governing pollution prevention by oil from shipping are contained in Annex I of International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). These provisions address both accidental discharges and operating measures. It is critical for the marine aquaculture sector to develop and implement early warning systems (EWS) that can aid in identifying and enabling prompt responses to potential oil spill incidents. Establishing efficient monitoring programs and assessment systems with regular sampling and analysis can help in early detection of contamination. Remote sensing technologies, satellite monitoring, and predictive modelling can aid in the early detection of oil pollution, allowing for timely response measures. Early warning and automated response capabilities allow early containment of oil pollution - thereby reducing the oil volume spilt and minimizing damage to the environment, wildlife, public waterways and in the case of aquaculture, commercial assets. The Marine Information System is a tool developed to incorporate all the data generated by ARGOMARINE (Automatic Oil–spill and geo-positioning integrated into a marine information system) into a publicly available monitoring and data management system. This ARGOMARINE system has been successful in creating physical and mathematical tools to protect oceans from pollution, particularly oil spills (Tonacci et al. 2014). Booms, skimmers, and other specialized equipment can be employed to contain and recover oil from affected areas, preventing
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