40 MARCH 2024 • WORLD AQUACULTURE • WWW.WAS.ORG and fish marketing. These actors include (i) suppliers of raw materials (ingredients); (ii) feed formulators and manufacturers; (iii) distributors/ wholesalers; (iv) retailers; and (v) customers who are fish farmers (Munguti et al. 2021) all of whom have to work closely together from the provision of raw materials to the final consumption of the finished product, without any of the players traversing the whole chain of operation. Affirmative action and gender mainstreaming in aquaculture development in Kenya are key areas that need to be taken up to strengthen women’s active participation (Orina et al. 2019). Studies by Githukia et al.. (2020) indicated that fish farming in Kenya is largely controlled by male farmers who are over 50 years of age, with most of the households male-headed and managed. This finding concurs with similar studies by Kiumbuku et al. (2013) and Obiero et al. (2019) who reported that most fish farming households are headed by males. There is limited access to production factors for women and youths, and thus fish farming has not been well embraced in the country (Chebet 2019). This may also be due to challenges with unravelling gender awareness and opportunities in the aquaculture value chain (Githukia et al. 2021). Kiumbuku et al. (2013) examined and evidenced many kinds of gender inequalities in the aquaculture and capture fisheries sectors in Trans Nzoia County. In terms of land ownership, the Kenyan market-led aquaculture program’s gender impact study found that more than 80% of all aquaculture ponds are located on family-owned or ancestral land, with just over 13% of ponds constructed on parcels of purchased land (Farm Africa 2016). More than 90% of the land Ethiopia faces issues in the aquaculture sector that hinder expansion. One of these is the low demand for fish products among the population. Janko (2014) reported that fish is not a common part of the diet in most parts of the country, except for some limited areas. Moreover, the limited supply and high price of fish products make them less affordable and accessible for many potential consumers. Teshome et al. (2016) found that in the Oromia region, both women and youths were actively involved, and their contribution was valuable to the existing development of the sector, but their efforts and contributions were not well recognized or clearly quantified. Study results revealed that 94.3% of the males surveyed engaged in fish farming and workshops alone. This indicates a lack of access and opportunity for women to acquire the necessary skills and knowledge for aquaculture development. Furthermore, the study found that women could not take on the responsibility of feeding the fish or managing the ponds due to tradition that expects women to hold responsibilities for cooking and providing food for the household. The findings of Askale and Tegegne (2019), agreed with those of Kinati and Mulema (2019) who revealed that apart from the fear of drowning and a lack of experience and skill to swim and barge, local customs in rural areas traditionally expect women to hold household responsibilities instead of being involved in outdoor activities. The Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) views the fishery sub-sector as a potential intervention area (Getahun and Fetene 2020). Thus, capture fisheries and aquaculture in Ethiopia are recognized as alternative means of offering food security in particular and poverty reduction and are now considered an integral part of rural and agricultural development strategies (Kebede et al. 2017), should more youths and women actively engage in them. Kenyan Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture Value Chains Many researchers have asserted that capture fisheries and small-holder aquaculture value chains can be significant sources of income and livelihoods in Kenya (Beveridge et al. 2013; Béné et al. 2016; Wanja et al. 2020). However, as in Ethiopia, a closer look into gender roles reveals that whereas males are primarily engaged in labor-intensive tasks such as pond excavation and preparation, pond management, fish harvesting, and fish feeding, women are mostly engaged in fish processing, trade and marketing (Nabayunga et al. 2021). Aquaculture and capture fisheries are not popular sectors among many youths in Kenya. Fortunately, though, this has not deterred women from getting involved in the fish farming industry. Women have gained the ability to invest in the aquaculture industry through table banking, such as “chamas” (a roundrobin system of saving and lending money) (Mangoa 2013), which functions in a variety of operations related to hatcheries, production, processing, and trade. Aquaculture’s development in Kenya by women and youths is hindered by common challenges similar to those in other subSaharan African countries. Aquaculture in Kenya is characterized by five principal players in the value chain, from fish seed and feed production to the final stage of fish harvesting, processing In emerging SSA economies millions of local communities rely on both wild capture fisheries and fish farming for their livelihoods. Small-scale fish farming is a relatively recent endeavor which still needs further intervention to act as a significant source of empowerment for women and youths (FAO 2022). Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, and Zambia appear to be desirable sub-Saharan nations for aquaculture, despite the numerous impediments to the acceptance and dissemination of fishponds
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