24 MARCH 2023 • WORLD AQUACULTURE • WWW.WAS.ORG farming activities in the region. In one harvest, a 2000-m2 pond that yields 2000 fish that are sold for an average market price of US$3.61/ kg would gross US$7236. In comparison, common agriculture products in the region such as rice and cattle would require many times that amount of land to generate a similar income. Only coca has the potential to generate a higher income on so little land, but its production is legally confined to one small geographic region and farmers are limited to producing on only 1000 m2. A common question that springs from such findings is whether people engage in aquaculture and then become wealthier or whether only people who are already relatively wealthy can enter aquaculture. We found that it is often the former, that those with marginal farmbased livelihoods enter aquaculture and increase their income. Starting aquaculture in central Bolivia is relatively low cost, approximately US$3000 for the first pond, fingerlings and feed, providing a return on investment that yields a small profit after the first harvest. Access to credit is also not a problem for most and several lending institutions have even created credit systems specifically for aquaculture. The only key barrier is land ownership, which in some countries may be a problem, but in Bolivia it is widespread, thus making aquaculture accessible to most farmers, regardless of wealth or scale of operation. Actors along the value chain are also benefiting economically from the aquaculture system. Increased transport, retailing and food service is generating employment opportunities, including for people in urban areas who themselves cannot produce fish. Entrepreneurs opening businesses in feed, fingerlings and especially restaurants have also enjoyed growth and improved incomes, in some cases much more. One such example is a young woman who started a fish market stall that evolved into a restaurant that primarily serves tambaqui (Figs. 4 and 5). She began in relative poverty but today her restaurant has become a landmark and culinary destination employing a number of women and serving hundreds of people every week. She has also become increasingly vertically integrated, operating a fish farm with more than 20 ponds and purchasing fish from many other producers in the region. Food Security. A second important development impact of central Bolivia aquaculture is improvement of food security. The impact has occurred along three pathways. The first is through an increase in home consumption of fish among fish farmers. Almost all fish farmers eat some of the fish they produce and most eat much more fish than other households in the community. As such, they have access to a secure source of protein and enjoy the associated health benefits of fish consumption (Irwin et al. 2021). The second pathway is through increased income, which improves access to food and hence food security. Producer households were found to be moderately more food secure than their neighbors who do not produce fish (Irwin et al. 2021). The employment of workers in the value chain, which many find to be superior to previous employment, is also showing signs of increased food security. The third pathway through which aquaculture is generating food security is increased fish consumption among the general population. The introduction of a new food to the region has not diversified diets more broadly but has added fish to the pre-existing common diet. The availability, popularity and affordability of fish have combined to make it relatively accessible. For the very poor, although they face a small price barrier, the nature of community and sharing in rural areas of the region means that they too are consuming more fish. Women’s Empowerment. One of the most interesting and important elements of the central Bolivian aquaculture system is its accessibility for women. At the household production level, aquaculture is conducive to women’s participation. Aquaculture production tasks, specifically pond monitoring, feeding and day-to-day maintenance dovetail well with women’s common, culturally-based household activities, such as caring for the home and raising children. Most ponds are located close to the home and aquaculture work tends to be much less physically demanding and time consuming than other farm activities such as cattle rearing and rice cultivation. This allows women to incorporate aquaculture into their existing home FIGURE 5. Tambaqui in cold storage at a restaurant (Photo: Bartay-IDRC). FIGURE 4. Preparing tambaqui at a restaurant (Photo: Bartay-IDRC).
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