WWW.WAS.ORG • WORLD AQUACULTURE • MARCH 2023 23 occasionally off-farm activities such as laborer, store owner or taxi driver. However, as the aquaculture system in the central region has flourished, more and more farmers are turning to aquaculture as their primary livelihood. Markets for fish produced through aquaculture exist throughout the country but are larger and more active in the central urban axis of Bolivia, which includes the cities of La Paz, El Alto, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz. Retail outlets for aquaculture products are primarily food markets or restaurants. Some direct sales from producers to consumers also occurs but are a small percentage of sales. The key actors in the aquaculture value chain include producers, input businesses, farm and supporting industry workers (e.g., feed companies) as well as marketers. The main input businesses are fingerling breeders and feed manufacturers. Laborers include farm workers, input business workers, and people employed at markets and restaurants. In general, central Bolivian aquaculture value chains tend to be short and localized. Some aquaculture production has national reach and enjoys a degree of production and marketing sophistication and, although such systems are growing, they are currently still nascent. The localization of the central Bolivian aquaculture system has generated interesting cultural and social effects. Demand for fish spikes each year during Semana Santa (Holy Week), the Catholic celebrations that take place during the last week of Lent and precede Easter. Fish is traditionally consumed during this time, related to its religious symbolism and importance in biblical scripture. Local consumers prefer locally produced fish for this occasion because of the community support and pride it generates (Irwin 2018). The popularity of local fish extends beyond this holiday as well. Restaurants that focus on fish have proliferated and become common destinations for special occasions such as birthdays, anniversaries and other family celebrations (Fig. 4). This is aided by the price point for pacu and tambaqui. It is slightly more expensive than other common proteins such as chicken and some types of beef, making it a modest luxury that is accessible to most consumers of the region. The combination of these conditions has led fish, and especially farmed fish, to drive the emergence of a local food culture. Culinary sophistication in fish and other foods has increased and the region has become a popular food destination for travelers. This has generated a positive feedback loop that further drives the development of aquaculture in central Bolivia. Development Impact A key promise of aquaculture, but one that has yet to be realized in most geographies outside of Asia, is its social and economic development benefits, particularly for rural people. Aquaculture in central Bolivia is showing signs of such promise. Economic Development. Our research has shown that the aquaculture system of central Bolivia is generating meaningful income for actors throughout the value chain. For producers, aquaculture is usually the most valuable activity in their household livelihood portfolio and fish farmers are on average wealthier than non-fish farmers, even when comparing them across similar scales of operation (Irwin et al. 2021). Central Bolivian aquaculture also generates more income per unit land compared to almost all other (CONTINUED ON PAGE 24) The Emergence of Central Bolivian Aquaculture After decades of relatively slow and inconsistent growth, aquaculture in the lowland region of Bolivia has undergone a resurgence. Increases in production and consumption have primarily shifted to the middle of the country, in communities along the major highway that connects the cities of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz de la Sierra. While governmental statistics tend to be outdated or unavailable, our research has indicated that the region is home to the majority of the country’s aquaculture producers and the vast majority of producers who farm tambaqui and pacu1 (INE 2013). Since 2015, the number of fish farming households has more than tripled from 532 to 1625 (Hinojosa 2018, 2022). Although aquaculture has remained an uncommon livelihood activity in Bolivia generally, its popularity is growing rapidly. In 2013 it was estimated that 0.5 percent of small-scale farmers farmed fish (INE 2015), today the estimate is closer to 5 percent, with rates much higher in the central aquaculture heartland (Fig. 3). Nearly all aquaculture in central Bolivia is artisanal but, because of its rapid growth, some farmers are on the cusp of being formal enterprises. Production is usually household-based and, in some cases, managed by the household’s matriarch. Ponds are typically 1.5-2 m deep with a total surface area around 2000 m2 (Irwin 2018). In 2016, the average number of ponds per household was between 3 and 4, today it is closer to 8 (Dulón and Hinojosa 2022, Irwin 2018). Production is primarily commercially oriented, but many families also consume a portion of their production. Aquaculture tends to be a part of a diversified livelihood portfolio that includes other farmbased activities such as rice, cattle, pineapple and coca cultivation, and FIGURE 3. Bolivia, with the Central Bolivian aquaculture region highlighted (Source: Zubieta et al.).
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