World Aquaculture Magazine - March 2021

28 MARCH 2021 • WORLD AQUACULTURE • WWW.WA S .ORG FIGURE 3. The social-ecological ecosystem of Atlantic salmon farming (International Salmon Farmers Association 2018). as much as possible, other aquaculture service industries that produce the most benefits to local economies. Investing in local institutions and employing local professionals as well as importing highly paid professionals from the outside are vitally important, especially for rural development. In Scotland, salmon aquaculture contributes to the long-term viability of many rural, coastal and island areas with year-round, well-paid jobs, plus it supports wider economic growth with its dispersed supply chain including processing, distribution, feed supplies and exports (Weaver et al. 2020). Feeds, seeds and services imports can be balanced with local provisioners (Fig. 3). Local sales, while not a major income earner for large operations, will over time create an accelerated social license for expansions at scale. Ecological aquaculture development models create new opportunities for a wider group of professionals to get involved in aquaculture because new advances will be needed not only in technology but also in information, community development and facilitation. Ecological aquaculture for future food security and environmental improvement requires these kinds of more comprehensive planning efforts to evolve an accelerated social contract, especially in its “new geographies.” 5. Ecological aquaculture uses native species/ strains anddoes not contribute to“biological”pollution. Escapees from aquaculture and aquarium operations have severely impacted aquatic ecosystems worldwide. Exotics species/ strains can be good choices only if: 1) long-termmonitoring data and scienti c research indicate that exotic species are unlikely to become established, 2) exotic species are widely established, unable to be eradicated and provide demonstrable economic and social pro ts without irreversible environmental harm, or 3) the use of native species puts at risk indigenous genetic diversity. Ecological aquaculture operations ensure that 1) innovative engineering and escapement technologies are used, 2) control and recovery procedures for escapees are in place, 3) active research and development programs provide alternatives and new options for the development of native species and 4) complete, transparent and public documentation and information are available. 6. Ecological aquaculture is a global partner, producing information for theworld, avoiding the proprietary. Ecological aquaculture farms are aquaculture ecosystems that go beyond “meeting the regulations.” They are sites of collaboration, leadership development and innovation. They are outstanding community citizens and models of stewardship. They invest in successful leadership development to trigger innovations in resource ef cient appropriate technologies, and more ecologically aligned legislation and regulations. The FAO Ecosystem Approach to Aquaculture In 2006, the Fisheries and Aquaculture Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) recognized the need to develop an ecosystem-based management approach to aquaculture similar to the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (“The Code”). It was expected that an ecosystem approach to aquaculture (EAA) would have three main objectives: human well-being, ecological well-being and the ability to achieve both via effective governance within a hierarchical framework that was scalable at farm, regional and global levels. An international group (Fig. 4) was convened in May 2007 in Palma de Mallorca, Spain by FAO’s Doris Soto, where review papers were presented (Soto et al. 2008), then guidelines developed (FAO 2010). The EAA is “A strategy for the integration of the activity within the wider ecosystem such that it promotes sustainable development, equity and resilience of interlinked social-ecological systems. An eco- system approach to aquaculture, similar to other systems approaches to management, accounts for a complete range of stakeholders, spheres of in uences and other interlinked processes.” Three principles and key issues at different scales of society were identified: Principle1: Aquaculture development and management should take account of the full range of ecosystem functions and services and should not threaten the sustained delivery of these to society. Key issue: To estimate resilience capacity or the limits to “ac- ceptable environmental change.” A range of terms has been used to estimate the limits to environmental change, including “environmental carrying capacity,” “environmental capacity,” “limits to ecosystem function,” “ecosystem health,” “ecosystem integrity,” “fully function- ing ecosystems,” all of which are subject to a speci c social/cultural/ political context. Conventional environmental impact assessments touch on some of these issues. Application of the precautionary ap- proach is important but inadequate in aquaculture; use of aquaculture risk assessments are becoming more widespread (GESAMP 2008). Principle2: Aquaculture should improve human well-being and equity for all relevant stakeholders. Key issue: Aquaculture should provide equal opportunities for development, which requires its bene ts to be more widely shared, especially locally, so that it does not bring detriment to any sector of society, especially the poor. Aquaculture should promote both food security and safety as key components of human well-being. Principle3: Aquaculture should be developed in the context of other sectors, policies and goals. Key issue: Interactions between aquaculture and its in uences on the surrounding natural and social environment must be recognized. Aquaculture often has a smaller impact than other human activities,